symbolic interactionism and inequality

And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. These reactions will also relate to the processes of positive, negative, and neutral generalized others discussed in the previous section. It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange . Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. For example, consider the following: In Chapel Hill in the early 2000s, an African-American nurse promises to buy her daughter a dress for the prom, but her choice at a reasonable price at the department store is deemed mundane by her daughter. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. [1] This theory is elaborated by Samuel Bacharach and Edward Lawler (1980, 1981; Cook and Rice ) as power being the inverse of the number of valued alternatives that one may have in the sense of not being dependent on the relationship with the other. DuBois was one of the first sociologists to examine race and double consciousness (the feeling that one's identity is divided because of race) and how that influences the sense of self. In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). In the bottom half of the table that describes low status, there are also three reactions. Second, Beverly Johnson comes from an ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a man whose family has a prominent background. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. Helen Hilton engaged in the least bridging capital to higher social classes. In the bottom half of the table that describes low status, there are also three reactions. These reactions will also relate to the processes of positive, negative, and neutral generalized others discussed in the previous section. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. Applying Symbolic Interaction Theory to Everyday Life This approach to studying the social world was outlined by Herbert Blumer in his book Symbolic Interactionism in 1937. Also, Richard Titmus in the The Gift Relationship (1997) describes the difference between exchanging blood based on it being a gift or being paid for the donation. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations and alludes to particular effects of communication and interaction in people to make images and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. This generalized exchange does not demand immediate payback and helping one may lead to them helping another so that the initiator of the exchange does not expect immediate payback. [3] In the professions literature, a particular profession often engages in a professional project to raise the status of the group as a whole. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). Symbolic Interactionism is a theoretical framework in sociology that describes how societies are created and maintained through the repeated actions of individuals (Carter and Fuller, 2015). Political sociology can use these exchange processes to show how various political interactions can be negotiated. This generalized exchange does not demand immediate payback and helping one may lead to them helping another so that the initiator of the exchange does not expect immediate payback. It is a form of group exchange where one person gives to another, who then in turn gives to a third person. Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. Relative power is the difference between your dependencies as compared to the other, and the others dependencies on you. Power in Symbolic Interactionism via Social Exchange Theory. Gender Inequality, Functionalism and Symbolic Interactionism. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. [3] In the professions literature, a particular profession often engages in a professional project to raise the status of the group as a whole. However, when groups are involved in strategic action then these calculations, in as much as they can be made, become quite important. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. Symbolic Interactionism As discussed in the opening module, W.E.B. Thus, the social mobility process is not just a reaction to blockages, but it is a creative process of external valuation through generalized others, and internal identification through self-processes. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). The grandmother mentions the specific dress that the young girl wants at the most expensive boutique in town, and the scion she works for says, I know the owner of the store; I can talk to her. The grandmother then tells her granddaughter that the dress has been marked down by 70% of the original price so that it is the same price as the department store dress. Among her husbands business associates, it consists of being the life of the party and maintaining long-term friendships with business associates. The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. Medical doctors rising above homeopaths with the Flexner Report are a good example, but the process also applies to nurses seeking bachelors degrees to promote the status of RNs (Larson 1977; Abbott 1988). 2014: 46-47; Reynolds 1987). But it is the high ranking but protected people and the low-ranking discriminated people who are the most likely to engage in social mobility conflicts. The exchange is usually short (money paid for material objects, knowledge or personal services) and both parties are self-interested. And the subordinates react to oppressive othering in a number of different ways. Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power as the basic motivating force for human beings and their groups. In a sense, they are saying I want my social mobility back or I dont want others to be rising above me with their own social mobility. On the other hand, those on the bottom may make the claim that upward mobility has no effect on others at the top, but relationally, this is not the case. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). For example, an individual receiving unemployment insurance promises to be ready and able to work, and to search for work and fail in order to receive the benefit. They must struggle to keep their high status. However, theories of political sociology cannot assume unrelenting social mobility for everyone since most social mobility is relational. Exchange theory then leads to bargaining processes, which will be discussed more fully in chapter 9 on the macro-level. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. Given these points, there are clear differences between the structural functionalist, social conflict and symbolic interaction theories. Third, there are individual to societal exchanges whereby an individual agrees to various terms with a larger societal group. This involves two aspects of networking. They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. And lastly, Joseph P. Kennedy was the son of a successful Irish businessman. . In row 5 (items 13, 14, and 15) people may be of low rank because of accidents or bad luck. Symbolic interaction has a particular weakness concerning a concept critical to political sociology and that is the concept of power. Rose Kennedy kept the family strongly united with frequent family gatherings (Patterson and Fagen 2020). There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. And downward mobility is much more painful than lack of mobility. In row 1 (items 1, 2 and 3) high status persons who feel that their status is based on ability engage in self-justified othering where they are validated, and they develop powerful virtual selves. Social networks of kin and association in social mobility settings can occur in different formats according to bonding and bridging capital. Authors Alex Dennis 1 , Peter J Martin Affiliation 1 School of English, Sociology, Politics and Contemporary History, University of Salford, UK. These are examples of generalized exchange through acquaintances rather than family. However, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further in the direction of social mobility. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of sociological theory. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. Power in Symbolic Interactionism via Social Exchange Theory. Here are four examples with disguised names except for the last one. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). Each one of these families utilized various aspects of generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social mobility prospects. All too often, the processes of the generalized other are portrayed as supportive othering such as mothers and fathers interacting with their children in the socialization process. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. Women are seen as inferior to men in every . The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. According to Macionis, symbolic interactionism is "a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of everyday interactions . (2000) provide a more nuanced view of oppressive othering by viewing different attributions with external and internal reactions from generalized others. They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. Those families who engage in bridging capital to go outside their kinship groups are even more successful in bringing their families more advancement in social mobility. The conflict theory garners most individuals into two classes that stimulate inequality. In every day go along with the flow and follow established norms of proper conduct, citizens pursue a form of generalized exchange whereby the good of the community is pursued. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. Reading across the tables columns, the first three rows represent higher status persons, and the latter three rows are lower status persons. Chapter 11 "Gender and Gender Inequality" examines some of the arguments of feminist theory at great length. Or if the exchange is to take place over a long period of time, perhaps for loans and bond purchases, the arrangement is firmly structured with a contract that covers many different aspects of the exchange. Gender inequality refers to the inequality between men and women, or the unequal treatment or perception of a person based on his or her gender. The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. Nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power, which this theory sorely needs. Post #2 Symbolic Interactionism And gender Inequality. They must struggle to keep their high status. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. Joseph married Rose Fitzgerald, the daughter of the then Irish Mayor of Boston. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. While the women largely stay at home, the male members of this kin group help each other to gain high paying jobs within the same industry as her husband with one becoming quite wealthy. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. Symbolic Interactionism, Inequality, and Emotions. In a way, symbolic interactionism is a liberating and emancipating force Similarly, powerful groups of people or structure can impose their will upon others with complete disregard for social beliefs. In restricted exchange, there are six different types from individual to various types of group and societal exchanges (1, 3 to 6 in Table 5.1) (Ekeh 1974: 46-52; Janoski 1998: 77-82). Or if the exchange is to take place over a long period of time, perhaps for loans and bond purchases, the arrangement is firmly structured with a contract that covers many different aspects of the exchange. In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. The family can also be a source of conflict, including physical violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members. Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). However, there are some people who are always in the restricted exchange mode (e.g., what have you done for me lately?). Generalized exchange looks to the betterment of the group as a whole, while restricted exchange is about the individual gaining for themselves. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. There is a bond but it is contingent on tit-for-tat exchange. This inequality, is having an impact on the family and it is mostly negative. Here are four examples with disguised names except for the last one. They actively construct a generalized other that recognizes their abilities and rejects oppressive othering, and they often will create positive sub-cultures among other low status but talented people that reflect their own more positive views (through ressentiment which was discussed earlier). Third, there are individual to societal exchanges whereby an individual agrees to various terms with a larger societal group. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). However, theories of political sociology cannot assume unrelenting social mobility for everyone since most social mobility is relational. Keywords Sexual Harassment Emotional Experience Identity Work Emotional Labor They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. Interactionists often consider the question of how power is exchanged in a situation. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. In simple terms, people in society understand their social worlds through communication the exchange of meaning through language and symbols. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. Schwalbe et al. In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. It is a form of group exchange where one person gives to another, who then in turn gives to a third person. Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. The whole process of oppressive othering is linked to highly charged emotions on the part of both the oppressors and the subordinates. Oppressive othering has been largely ignored as a general social process though labeling theory comes close to it. It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange and types of social mobility. The purposes of these oppressions are boundary maintenance processes to indicate that the oppressors belong to a superior group and the subordinates belong to a less worthy group. Economists would like to apply restricted exchange to all types of social exchange (e.g., Gary Beckers rational account of marriages and partnerships, and also sociobiological theories that see couples maximizing their gene pools for reproduction). After describing the couples, the author develops a symbolic interactionist model to explain how the respondents made sense of their violence. Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. There are some strong inclinations toward bargaining theory in symbolic interactionist theory. Much of this type of exchange is linked to rational action as per Max Webers concepts of rationality. However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. Medical doctors rising above homeopaths with the Flexner Report are a good example, but the process also applies to nurses seeking bachelors degrees to promote the status of RNs (Larson 1977; Abbott 1988). However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. Medical doctors rising above homeopaths with the Flexner Report are a good example, but the process also applies to nurses seeking bachelors degrees to promote the status of RNs (Larson 1977; Abbott 1988). In another way, a gift may be given to the taker, but the giver extracts a promise of a favor in the future. Similarly, Josh Pacewicz (2016) shows how the old rich partisans made philanthropic gifts to keep town members in their debt, but these donations are small fractions of their total wealth. Here are four examples with disguised names except for the last one. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. The middle category of high and low status persons could move up or down depending on the circumstances. But again, the social mobility boundary is fought most between row 3 of the vulnerable high-status people, and row 6 of the discriminated against but talented low-status persons. But on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics. The exchange is usually short (money paid for material objects, knowledge or personal services) and both parties are self-interested. 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